Trilobite - Olenus

                             TRILOBITE 

NAME OF THE GENUS : OLENUS 

 BIO STATUS 

  1) PHYLUM : ARTHROPODA

  2) CLASS     : TRILOBITA 

  3) ORDER    : OPISTHOPARIA 

SHAPE & SIZE OF

THE BODY CEPHALON :

                              Oval, about 3 cm. 

SHAPE : 

             Rectangular with a narrow border wider than the rest of the body. 

GLABELLA : 

             Sub - rectangular, often slightly tapering glabella not reaching the anterior border with 3 pairs of furrows. 

FACIAL SUTURE & CHEEKS : 

              Opisthoparian ; fixed cheek broad. 

EYES : 

          Connected by eye ridge to the front of the glabella. 

GENAL ANGLE : 

            With genal spines continuation of free cheek. 

THORAX : 

            13 to 15 free segments, spinose, with rather flat pleasure and narrow facets. 

PYGIDIUM : 

           Small triangular, segments fused. 

SPECIAL CHARACTERS : 

           Oval body ; rectangular Cephalon ; opisthoparian, eyes connected by a ridge with glabella, short genal spines, free glabellar field present ; 13 to 15 thoracic free spiny segments; pygidium small. 

Trilobite - Paradoxides

                               TRILOBITE 

NAME OF THE GENUS : PARADOXIDES

BIO STATUS 

 1) PHYLUM : ARTHROPODA

 2) CLASS    : TRILOBITA

 3) ORDER    : OPISTHOPARIA

SHAPE & SIZE OF

THE BODY CEPHALON : 

                                  Large, elongated, narrowed Posteriorly, almost 7 to 15cm. 

SHAPE :

           Semicircular with genal spines extended backward as long spines. 

GLABELLA : 

           Expands forwards to broadly rounded front, glabellar furrows usually well defined and may unite access mid part of glabella. 

FACIAL SUTURE & CHEEKS : 

           Extends from the anterior, traverse through the cheek & ends in the posterior margin of the Cephalon - Opisthoparian, free cheeks broad with genal spine. 

EYES : 

          Large ; arched. 

GENAL ANGLE : 

           In the from of the spines and with free cheeks. 

THORAX : 

           Long, tapers towards pygidium with 16 to 21 segments, pleasure grooved and ends in long sharp spines directed backward. 

PYGIDIUM : 

           Small, spade - plate with indication of several segments. 

SPECIAL CHARACTERS : 

           Head shield, semicircular, with long genal spines; Glabella expands forward to broadly rounded front ; Opisthoparian ; Crescentic eye ; Thorax tapers towards pygidium with 16 to 21 spiny pleural segments;

Pygidium small. 

Insta

Trilobite - Olenellus

                              TRILOBITE 

                             

SHAPE & SIZE  OF THE 

BODY CEPHALON  : 

                     Elongated. 

Shape : 

           Semicircular wide with a border. 

Glabella : 

            Extends to the anterior border and has four distinct lateral furrows. 

Facial Suture & Cheeks : 

             Marginal - protoparian, cheeks undivided. 

Eyes : 

         Large, cresentic joined to the front segment of the glabella.

Genal angle : 

Extended in the from of genal spines. 

Name Of The Genus : OLENELLUS 

Bio status 

  1) Phylum    : ARTHROPODA 

  2) Class       :  TRILOBITA 

  3) Order       :  PROTOPARIA 

THORAX : 

                The anterior part of the thorax contains 14segments with spinose pleurae, grooved, third segment larger than the order and with longer spines extended backward.

PYGIDIUM : 

                 Elongated, spine - like, caudal spine without lateral lobes on the axis. 

SPECIAL CHARACTERS : 

                 Head shield semicircular, with a border and genal spine. Facial suture protoparian, crescentic eye ridge connected to the first segment of the glabella, 14 thoracic segments with pleural spines, pygidium without lateral lobes and with a caudal spine. 

Factors affecting weathering

         FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING

              All the process of weathering are affected by rock structure, climate, topography, and vegetation. 

              Rock structure refers to mineralogical composition, joints bedding planes, faults, fractures, pores and its integral hardness. The degree of weathering of the source area, i.e., the area where weathering operates is controlled by the nature of pre-existing rocks to a greater extent. 

              Climate is the sum-total of the meteorological elements like temperature, moisture, including both humility and precipitation, wind, air - pressure and evaporation. Climate determines whether physical or chemical weathering will predominate and the speed with which these process will operate.

             Topography directly affects weathering by exposing rocks and indirectly though the amount of precipitation, temperature and vegetation. 

              Surface covered with vegetation are protected and bare surface are weathered to a greater extent. 

Biological Weathering

                   BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

          This process of weathering is mainly related to the activities of various organisms. Organisms mainly plants and bacteria, take part in the transformation of rocks at the surface, in the following ways : 

           1) Bio-physical processes

           2) Bio-chemical processes 

1) Bio-physical Processes : 

                     a) Plant - roots, growing between joint blocks and alone minute fractures between mineral grains, exert an expansive force tending to widen those opening and sometimes create new fractures.

                     b) Insects like earth - worm, snail etc. Loosen the soli cover and create suitable conditions for the various external agencies to have their own action on the underlying rocks, which ultimately lead to rock weathering. 

2) Bio-chemical Processes : 

                     a) Sometimes, certain groups of bacteria, algae and mosses break rock - forming Silicates down directly, removing from them elements like silicon, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, that they need as nutrients. 

                    b) After the death of animals or plants, with their subsequent decay and degeneration, chemically active substances are produced, which are cable of bringing about rock weathering. For example, humic acid which is formed during decay and degeneration of plant life is capable of bringing about rock weathering effectively, to some extend. 

           Thus in nature the processes of weathering is being carried out by various external agencies. 

Chemical Weathering

                     CHEMICAL WEATHERING 

     It is also known as mineral alteration, consists of a number of chemical reactions, all these reactions change the original silicate minerals of igneous rock, the primary minerals, into new compounds, the secondary minerals, that are stable in the surface environment. Besides, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are also substantially affected by the chemical process of weathering. Chemical is more important than mechanical weathering in almost all the climatic regions. 

Three processes are notably responsible for chemical weathering : 

         a) Oxidation 

         b) Hydration

         c) Carbonation 

Oxidation : 

                  The presence of dissolved oxygen in water in contact with mineral surface leads to oxidation. Which is the chemical union of oxigen atoms with atoms of other metallic elements. Oxygen has a particular affinity for iron compounds and these are among the most commonly oxidized materials.

Hydration : 

                   The chemical union of water with a mineral is called hydration. It is sometimes confused with hydrolysis. The reaction between water and a compound. The process of hydration is particularly effective of some aluminum bearing minerals, such as feldspar. 

Carbonation : 

                     Carbon dioxide is a gas and is a common constituents of the earth's atmosphere. Rain water in course of its passage through the atmosphere, dissolves some of the carbon dioxide present in the air. It thus turns into a week acid called Carbonic acid, and is the most common solvent acting on the crust. The effect of this process is well noticed in the limestone or chalk areas in the humid regions of the world. 

                    Besides the above, another process known as Solution is quite significant in bringing about the chemical weathering of rocks. In this case, some of the minerals got dissolved by water and thus removed in solution, for example gypsum halite etc..

Physical Weathering

                      PHYSICAL WEATHERING 

                       This process refes to the mechanical disintegration of rocks in which their mineralogical composition is not changed. This is brought about chiefly by temperature changes, e.g, thermal expansion and contraction. The following are some of the important process of physical weathering.

           a) Exfoliation 

           b) Crystal growth 

           c) Freezing of water 

           d) Differential expansion 

Exfoliation : 

                    In this case thin sheets of rock split off owing to differential expansion and contraction during heating and cooling over the diurnal temperature range.

                   Sometimes, it is the result of unloading in which case, because of the removal of the overlying rocks, the pressure on the igneous rocks beneath them is also diminished and this results in the expansion of igneous rocks and in the formation of large scale fractures parallel to the surface topography. Sheets b/w the fractures are detached the main mass which thus suffers fragmentation. 

Crystal growth : 

                       The soluble constituents of the rocks or minerals, enter the rocks through fractures and joints, along with water. With the evaporation of water the solution is precipitated to from crystals or crystalline aggregates and as they grow, they exert large expansive stresses, which help in breaking up some rocks. 

Freezing of water : 

                       Water, as we know, expands by about 9.05 present in volume when it freezes. The water seeps down into the fractures and under suitable climatic condition, begins to freeze at the top of the fracture first. As freezing continues, the pressure exerted on the walls became more and more intense. Which results in widening the existing fracture and new fracture from. This is the dominant mode of weathering, in climates where there is repeated freezing and thawing. This is also known as Frost action. 

Differential expansion : 

                        Rock - forming minerals expand when heated, but contract when cooled. Where rock surfaces are exposed daily to intense heating by direct solar rays, alternating with intense cooling by longwave radiation at night, the resulting expansion and contraction of mineral grains tends to break them apart. 

PROCESS OF WEATHERING

               PROCESS OF WEATHERING

Introduction : 

                      Weathering is the general term applied to the combined action of all processes causing rocks to be disintegrated physically and decomposed chemically because of exposure at or near ty earth's surface.

                     In particular, weathering occurs, where rocks and minerals come in contact wiy the atmosphere, surficial water, and organic life under conditions that are normal to the surface the earth.

                     Weathering helps erosion, but is not a part of it. There can be weathering without erosion and erosion without weathering.

Types of weathering : 

                     There are three main types of weathering,

                   1) Physical Weathering,

                   2) Chemical Weathering,

                   3) Biological Weathering.

1) Physical Weathering : 

                    This process refer to the mechanical disintegration of rocks in which their mineralogical composition is not changed. This is brought about chiefly by temperature changes, e.g., thermal expansion and contraction. The following are some of the importance process of physical weathering.

2) Chemical weathering : 

                     It is also known as mineral alteration, consists of a number of chemical reaction, all these reactions change the original silicate minerals of igneous rock, the primary minerals, into new compounds, the secondary minerals, that are stable in the surface environment.

3) Biological Weathering : 

                     This process of weathering is mainly related to the activities of various organisms. Organisms, mainly plants and bacteria, take part in the transformation of rocks at the surface. 

THE CORE

                                THE CORE 

It is separate from the mantle by the Gutenberg Weichert Discontinuity and extends up to the centre of the earth. 

It consists of three parts : 

             1) Outer Core 

             2) Middle Core 

             3) Inner Core 

1) Outer Core : 

                It extends from 2900 to 4982 kms. It is considered to be in a state of homogenous fluid and it does not transmit S - Waves.

2) Middle Core :

               It is a transition layer, extends from 4982 kms to 5121 kms. The material is in a fluid to semi - fluid state.

3) Inner Core : 

               It is believed to contain metallic nickel and Iron and is called “ nife ”. It is probably solid with a density of about 18. Its thickness is 1250 kms. 

THE MANTLE

                           THE MANTLE

It is separated from the over - lying crust by the Mohorovicic - Discontinuity which is a first order discontinuity. Its thickness is about 2865 kms. It forms 83% of the earth by volume and 68% by mass. 

It is the source - region of most of earth's internal energy and of forces responsible for ocean - floor spreading, continental drift, orogeny and major earthquakes. 

The material is olivine - pyroxene complex, which exists in solid state. It is believed that the upper mantle has a mix of 3 parts of ultramafic rocks and 1-part of basalt and the mix is known as Pyrolite. The lower mantle extends from 1000km to the core boundary.

Within the mantle, a number of second - order discontinuities have been located, which are as follows : 

1) Density break at 80 km depth : Density changes from 3.36 to 3.87 above and below the level respectively. 

2) Gravity break at 150 km depth : gravity changes from 984cm/ sec² till it reaches at a depth of 1200 kms. 

3) At 700 km - depth, there changes the capability of the materials in storing amount of elastic - stain energy. Up to 700 kms the capability is more.

4) Repetiti discontinuity : At 950 km depth. It marks the lower limit of the very rapid rise in the velocity of seismic vibrations.

5) Gravity - break : At 1200 km depth, gravity attains its minimum value i.e., 974cm/sec² , therefore it rises upto 1068 cm/ sec² at the core boundary.

THE CRUST

                            THE CRUST 

                    It is the top most layer of the earth. Its thickness over the oceanic area is generally 5 to 10 kms, whereas on the continental area, it is 35 kms and the thickness ranges from 55 to 70 kms in Orogenic belts.

Sub-divisions of the crust : 

                    The crust of the earth is sub-divided into sub layers as follows :

                    1.Sial,

                    2.Sima.

1.Sial : 

           👉 It is also known as the Upper - Continental - Crust. It's consists of all types of rocks like igneous, Sedimentary and metamorphic, which are exposed at the land - surface. It is rich in silica and aluminum. 

           👉 It's composition is usually granitic to grano - dioritic. In the ocean-basins, they are floored by a basaltic - horizon which are poorer in potassium and richer in aluminum then the basalts of land surface and are called 

“ Oceanic - Tholeiites ”.

          👉 Conrad Discontinuity separates the sial- layer from the under lying sima - layer. This discontinuity is a second - order discontinuity and is located at a depth of 11 kms.

2.Sima : 

              It is also known as Lower - Continental crust. Its thickness is about 22kms. It includes two parts,

               a) Outer Sima,

               b) Inner Sima. 

👉 Outer sima extends up to a depth of 19kms and comprises rocks of intermediate composition.

👉 Inner sima is located at a depth of 19 kms and extends up to 33 kms. It is of basic to ultra - basic in composition. 

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

             STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH 

The study of the structure of the earth focusses on it's layered structure and the variations in the density and temperature, at various depths. The shape of the earth is that of a spheroid with mean equatorial radius of 6378 km. And polar radius of 6357km.

Broadly, the earth's interior has been divided into three major parts : 

              1.The Crust,

              2.The Mantle,

              3.The Core.



1. The Crust :

                       It is the top most layer of the earth. It's thickness over the oceanic area is generally 5 to 10 kms. Whereas on the continental area, it is 35kms and the thickness ranges from 55 to 70kms in Orogenic belts.

Sub-divisions of the crust :

                       The crust of the earth is sub-divided into sub layers as follows.

                        1. Sial,

                        2. Sima.

2. The Mantle : 

                         It is separated from the over-lying crust by the Mohorovicic - Discontinuity which is a first order discontinuity. It's thickness is about 2865kms. It forms 83% of the earth by volume and 68% by mass.

3. The Core : 

                      It is separated from the mantle by the Guttenberg Weichert Discontinuity and extends up to the center of the earth. It consists of three parts :

                         1. Outer Core,

                         2. Middle Core,

                         3. Inner Core. 

Top 10 Beautiful Colorful Lakes In The World 😍

           𝗧𝗼𝗽 10 𝗕𝗲𝗮𝘂𝘁𝗶𝗳𝘂𝗹 𝗖𝗼𝗹𝗼𝗿𝗳𝘂𝗹 𝗟𝗮𝗸𝗲𝘀 

                           𝗜𝗻 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗪𝗼𝗿𝗹𝗱

1. 𝗟𝗔𝗞𝗘 𝗛𝗜𝗟𝗟𝗘𝗥, 𝗔𝗨𝗦𝗧𝗥𝗔𝗟𝗜𝗔:

Situated beside the Pacific Ocean in Western Australia, Lake Hillier looks like a canvas painted with brick pink. Guarded by the thick rim of sand, paperback and eucalyptus trees, this 600 metres long lake was first discovered in 1802 by Matthew Flinders. It is believed that the excessive Saline content in the water and presence of Dunaliella Salina bacteria result n the pink colour. But whatever be it, it is a joy to the eyes. The contrasting blue and pink, form the perfect landscape. During the early 20th century, the lake also contributed to salt mining, for the salt content is as much as the Dead Sea. But now it serves as a prominent tourist attraction, one can reach the attractive Hillier Lake either in a boat or flight. It is one of the most beautiful and colorful lakes in the world.

2.𝗣𝗘𝗬𝗧𝗢 𝗟𝗔𝗞𝗘, 𝗪𝗘𝗦𝗧𝗘𝗥𝗡 𝗖𝗔𝗡𝗔𝗗𝗔:

Canada’s first National Park, Banff National Park is house to one of the most beautiful lakes in Canada known as Bluest Glacier Lake. Peyto Lake is named after Bill Peyto who first discovered it in 1849. The icy water of Peyto Lake is crystal clear, prominent enough to present the sight of 270 feet deep rock floor. The sunlight reflects off the rock floor and gives a splendid view. It is one of the best attractions in Banff National Park. The glaciers surrounding the Lake are more than 45 to 125 million years old and have historic significance with Ice Age. Peyto Lake is easily accessible and one of the best places to visit in Alberta. Tourists can also enjoy the legacy of Banff. Also, read about best places to visit in Canada.

3.𝗟𝗔𝗚𝗨𝗡𝗔 𝗖𝗢𝗟𝗢𝗥𝗔𝗗𝗔, 𝗕𝗢𝗟𝗜𝗩𝗜𝗔:

The vast stretch of blue sky, Andes mountain, numerous flamingos in the red lake of Southwest Bolivia is a sight worth seeing. Laguna Colorada is also known as Red Lagoon. This lavish red lake has got its colour from the red sediments and algae in it. Around 14,000 feet above sea level, this lake has borax islands and its white pools perfectly contrast the orange-red tone. The rarest and endangered Andean Flamingos are also found here, along with Chilean and James flamingos. The salt lake is easily accessible and a major tourist spot.

4.𝗞𝗘𝗟𝗜𝗠𝗨𝗧𝗨, 𝗜𝗡𝗗𝗢𝗡𝗘𝗦𝗜𝗔:

The tri-coloured lakes sharing the same name “Kelimutu” are in the Mt. Kelimutu National Park. Even though they are on the same volcanic peak, the three lakes share three different colours. Interestingly, the colour variation is unpredictable. It ranges from blue, green and black to white, red and blue. The locals have different names for the lakes and they believe it as the resting place of the departed souls. The lake at the western point of the Volcano is where the good souls are believed to go and the other two having souls of bad people, are often green and blood red. The colour of the lakes is probably due to the underwater fumaroles. It is dangerous to step near the lakes as there are steamy fumes that can be hazardous. But tourists can of course trek around the lake and enjoy the flora and fauna.

5. 𝗖𝗛𝗢𝗧𝗧 𝗘𝗟 𝗗𝗝𝗘𝗥𝗜𝗗 : 

“Lagoon of the Land of Palms” in English, the largest endorheic salt lake in southern Tunisia will impress your eyes. The lake shaped like a wolf has an overall length of 250km and covered with salt. The extremely harsh climatic conditions and minimal rainfall dries it up. But one can still see the pink and green coloured water that gets grounded off as salt. This sun-baked lake is a paradise for Geologists. You will be fascinated to learn that it was also used as a filming location for the Star Wars series. So all the Star Wars fans, it’s time to bucket list Chott El Djerid.

6.𝗘𝗠𝗘𝗥𝗔𝗟𝗗 𝗟𝗔𝗞𝗘𝗦, 𝗡𝗘𝗪 𝗭𝗘𝗔𝗟𝗔𝗡𝗗: 

Tongariro Alpine Crossing is one of its kind. It has both cultural and historical significance. Tongariro National Park, having the honour of UNESCO’s dual World Heritage Status has Mount Tongariro and Mount Ngauruhoe within its border. This 12-mile crossing is considered as the best one day trek in the country. The volcanoes, terrain, unmatched natural beauty soothes every passerby’s heart. The most attractive part of in the trek is Emerald Lake. Upon descending from the highest point i.e., Red Crater lays the Emerald Lakes. The magnificent lake has partly got such colour due to the dissolved minerals that have been washed down by the Red Crater. The green and blue water make the lake excessively beautiful.

7.𝗟𝗔𝗞𝗘 𝗥𝗘𝗕𝗧𝗔, 𝗦𝗘𝗡𝗘𝗚𝗔𝗟 :

Cape Vert Peninsula of Senegal has one of the most colorful lakes in the world. Lake Rebta is also known as Lac Rose for its pink colour. And this is due to the Dunaliella Salina that lives in it. The shade of the lake varies from dark pink to the colour of dark rose. This World heritage site has dunes surrounding it, thus separating it from the Atlantic Ocean. This lake is buoyant, just like the Dead Sea. Salt fishing is the major activity done in this lake. Apart from that, its uniqueness draws the attention of tourists from all over the world.

8. LAGUNA VERDE, BOLIVIA :

Just like Laguna Colorada, Laguna Verde is another wonder of Bolivia. Majestically lying in the foot of inactive Volcano Licancabur, this salt lake has brilliant shades of green. The colour of the water is caused by the mineral deposits. The most interesting fact is the climatic condition and its effect on the lake water. During winters, the temperature goes down to -56 degrees yet the water remains in its liquid state. This lake situated at 4300 metres above the sea level is connected to Laguna Blanca that has white water.

9.𝗙𝗜𝗩𝗘 𝗙𝗟𝗢𝗪𝗘𝗥 𝗟𝗔𝗞𝗘 :

Jiuzhaigou National Park earned the honour of UNESCO World Heritage site in 1992. The 72,000 hectares of natural beauty is a safe home to a diverse ecosystem. And within the reserve lies one of the colorful lakes in the world, Five Flower Lake. The 16 feet deep lake is surrounded by mountains. Most of the colour sapphire blue, its colour varies from amber yellow to dark jade. The lake does not freeze in winter and the water level remains constant. It has mineral content in it, along with a hot water spring flowing under it. It is also listed as one of the beautiful lakes in the world.

10. QUILOTOA, ECUADOR

The crater lake Quilotoa is a 3-kilometre wide caldera that was formed due to volcanic eruption before several centuries. Today, the 820 feet deep lake serves as a major tourist spot. It has a greenish colour which is due to the mineral deposits. Quilotoa Loop is also considered as one of the best hiking trips in Ecuador.

Halite On Trona

      Halite On Trona 😇

1.Halite : 

Halite, commonly known as rock salt, is a type of salt, the mineral form of sodium chloride. Halite forms isometric crystals. 

👉 Crystal class: Hexoctahedral (m3m); H-M 👉 Symbol: (4/m 3 2/m)

👉 Crystal system: Cubic

👉 Mohs scale hardness: 2.0–2.5

👉 Formula mass: 58.433 g/mol

👉 Crystal habit: Predominantly cubes and in massive sedimentary beds, but also granular, fibrous and compact

👉 Optical properties: Isotropic

👉 Space group: Fm3m.

2.Trona :

Trona is a non-marine evaporite mineral. It is mined as the primary source of sodium carbonate in the United States, where it has replaced the Solvay process used in most of the rest of the world for sodium carbonate production. 

👉 Crystal system: Monoclinic

👉 Optical properties: Biaxial (-)

👉 Crystal class: Prismatic (2/m); (same H-M symbol)

👉 Crystal habit: Columnar, fibrous and massive

👉 Solubility: Soluble in water

👉 Mohs scale hardness: 2.5

👉 Specific gravity: 2.11–2.17.